American Journal of PharmTech Research

Background: Cephalosporins and sulfonylureas represent clinically important drug classes used in the management of bacterial infections and type 2 diabetes mellitus, respectively. Their distinct molecular targets, pharmacokinetic properties, therapeutic benefits, and adverse-effect profiles illustrate fundamental principles of pharmacological selectivity and rational drug utilisation. Objective: This review examines the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, classification, therapeutic applications, mechanisms of resistance or treatment failure, safety considerations, and contemporary clinical relevance of cephalosporins and sulfonylureas. Methods: A narrative literature review was undertaken using established pharmacology literature, biomedical review articles, and accessible clinical reference sources. Relevant evidence was synthesised to explain the mechanisms of action, therapeutic positioning, drug interactions, and limitations of both classes. Results: Cephalosporins inhibit bacterial cell-wall synthesis through interactions with penicillin-binding proteins. Their antibacterial spectrum varies with molecular structure, generation, susceptibility patterns, and resistance mechanisms, including β-lactamase production and altered target proteins. Sulfonylureas stimulate pancreatic β-cell insulin secretion by binding sulfonylurea receptors associated with ATP-sensitive potassium channels. Although effective glucose-lowering agents, they can cause hypoglycaemia and weight gain, with risks influenced by renal function, nutrition, age, and concomitant medicines. Both classes require individualised selection, appropriate dosing, monitoring, and consideration of patient-specific factors. Conclusion: Rational use of these pharmacologically distinct agents depends on understanding their molecular mechanisms, therapeutic indications, limitations, and safety profiles. Antimicrobial stewardship and individualised diabetes management are essential to optimise clinical outcomes and minimise preventable harm. Keywords Antimicrobial stewardship; β-lactam resistance; insulin secretion; hypoglycaemia; rational pharmacotherapy.

This study examined loratadine-loaded ethosomal dispersions and the incorporation of the selected batch into a Carbopol-based gel for potential topical/transdermal use. Eight distinct formulations (F1–F8) were prepared and subsequently evaluated for vesicle size, drug entrapment and in-vitro release. Particle size ranged from 118.6 ± 2.41 nm for F1 to 236.8 ± 4.12 nm for F8; entrapment efficiency ranged from 72.64% to 87.35%. F8 showed the highest entrapment efficiency (87.35%) and drug release was 90.18% over seven hours. The selected F8 dispersion was mixed with Carbopol gel and tested for viscosity, spreadability, pH and drug content. Drug content was found to be 98.46%, while cumulative release reached 87.35% at seven hours. Of the kinetic models assessed, the Higuchi model had the highest coefficient of determination (R² = 0.9997). No visible irritation was recorded during the 14-day observation period. Stability study was carried out for four-weeks under specific storage conditions. Overall, the experimental findings identify F8 as the strongest candidate among the batches tested, based on entrapment, release and measured gel properties. These in-vitro findings justify further investigation but do not establish clinical effectiveness or confirm transdermal delivery in humans. Further studies, including appropriate skin-permeation testing and well-documented stability assessment, are needed.

Background: Facial cleansers remove excess oil and impurities while maintaining skin comfort. Zinc PCA was selected for its sebum-regulating properties, and kaolin clay was used as an adsorbent. Objective: To formulate and evaluate eight clay-based facial cleansers containing Zinc PCA and kaolin clay using xanthan gum or guar gum as thickening agents. Methods: The formulations (F1–F8) were prepared using a simple mixing method. Zinc PCA (0.5%), kaolin clay (5%), glycerin (10%), disodium EDTA (0.3%), cocamidopropyl betaine (6%), and sodium benzoate (0.5%) were kept constant. Xanthan gum concentrations ranged from 0.2% to 0.5% in F1–F4, while guar gum concentrations ranged from 0.4% to 0.7% in F5–F8. The formulations were evaluated for FTIR compatibility, appearance, homogeneity, pH, viscosity, spreadability, washability, phase separation, and foam height. Results: All formulations appeared milky, cloudy, and off-white, with visual homogeneity. The pH ranged from 5.16 to 5.51, viscosity from 260 to 2100 mPa·s, and foam height from 1.40 to 4.53 cm. Spreadability values ranged from 220.8 to 528.57 g·cm/s. No phase separation was observed in F1–F4, whereas F5–F8 showed separation. F2 and F7 were identified as preferred candidates based on the overall evaluation. Conclusion: Zinc PCA–kaolin clay facial cleansers were successfully formulated. However, guar-gum formulations require further optimization to improve stability. Long-term stability, safety, and efficacy studies are necessary before confirming their skin benefits. Keywords: sebum regulation; skin barrier; adsorbent; xanthan gum; guar gum